How Are Marine Animals Affected By Pollution

Scientific study of organisms that live in the ocean

"Marine biologist" redirects here. For the Seinfeld episode, see The Marine Biologist.

Marine biology is the scientific study of the biological science of marine life, organisms in the sea. Given that in biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on land, marine biology classifies species based on the surroundings rather than on taxonomy.

A large proportion of all life on Earth lives in the ocean. The exact size of this large proportion is unknown, since many bounding main species are yet to be discovered. The body of water is a circuitous three-dimensional world^[1] covering approximately 71% of the Earth'southward surface. The habitats studied in marine biology include everything from the tiny layers of surface water in which organisms and abiotic items may exist trapped in surface tension between the ocean and atmosphere, to the depths of the oceanic trenches, sometimes 10,000 meters or more beneath the surface of the ocean. Specific habitats include estuaries, coral reefs, kelp forests, seagrass meadows, the surrounds of seamounts and thermal vents, tidepools, muddied, sandy and rocky bottoms, and the open sea (pelagic) zone, where solid objects are rare and the surface of the water is the only visible boundary. The organisms studied range from microscopic phytoplankton and zooplankton to huge cetaceans (whales) 25–32 meters (82–105 feet) in length. Marine ecology is the study of how marine organisms interact with each other and the surround.

Marine life is a vast resources, providing food, medicine, and raw materials, in improver to helping to back up recreation and tourism all over the earth. At a fundamental level, marine life helps decide the very nature of our planet. Marine organisms contribute significantly to the oxygen bike, and are involved in the regulation of the Globe'south climate.^[2] Shorelines are in part shaped and protected by marine life, and some marine organisms even help create new country.^[iii]

Many species are economically of import to humans, including both finfish and shellfish. It is also condign understood that the well-being of marine organisms and other organisms are linked in fundamental ways. The human being trunk of knowledge regarding the relationship between life in the sea and important cycles is chop-chop growing, with new discoveries beingness made nearly every twenty-four hour period. These cycles include those of matter (such as the carbon cycle) and of air (such every bit Earth's respiration, and movement of free energy through ecosystems including the sea). Large areas beneath the body of water surface even so remain finer unexplored.

Biological oceanography [edit]

Marine biology studies species that alive in marine habitats. Most of the Earth's surface is covered past ocean, which is the home to marine life. Oceans boilerplate nearly four kilometers in-depth and are fringed with coastlines that run for most 360,000 kilometres.^{[4] [5]}

Marine biology can exist contrasted with biological oceanography. Marine life is a subject area both in marine biology and in biological oceanography. Biological oceanography is the study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemical science, and geology of the oceanographic organization. Biological oceanography more often than not focuses on the microorganisms within the bounding main; looking at how they are afflicted by their environment and how that affects larger marine creatures and their ecosystem.^[half-dozen] Biological oceanography is similar to marine biological science, but information technology studies sea life from a different perspective. Biological oceanography takes a lesser upwardly approach in terms of the nutrient web, while marine biological science studies the ocean from a top down perspective. Biological oceanography mainly focuses on the ecosystem of the sea with an accent on plankton: their variety (morphology, nutritional sources, motion, and metabolism); their productivity and how that plays a role in the global carbon bicycle; and their distribution (predation and life wheel).^{[half dozen] [vii] [8]} Biological oceanography also investigates the role of microbes in food webs, and how humans impact the ecosystems in the oceans.^{[vi] [9]}

Marine habitats [edit]

Marine habitats can be divided into littoral and open ocean habitats. Coastal habitats are found in the area that extends from the shoreline to the edge of the continental shelf. Most marine life is found in coastal habitats, even though the shelf surface area occupies only seven per centum of the total body of water area. Open ocean habitats are found in the deep ocean beyond the edge of the continental shelf. Alternatively, marine habitats tin can be divided into pelagic and demersal habitats. Pelagic habitats are found nearly the surface or in the open water column, away from the bottom of the ocean and affected by bounding main currents, while demersal habitats are near or on the lesser. Marine habitats can be modified by their inhabitants. Some marine organisms, like corals, kelp and bounding main grasses, are ecosystem engineers which reshape the marine environment to the signal where they create further habitat for other organisms.

Intertidal and near shore [edit]

Intertidal zones, the areas that are close to the shore, are constantly being exposed and covered past the bounding main's tides. A huge assortment of life can be found within this zone. Shore habitats span from the upper intertidal zones to the area where land vegetation takes prominence. It can be underwater anywhere from daily to very infrequently. Many species hither are scavengers, living off of sea life that is washed upwards on the shore. Many country animals besides make much utilize of the shore and intertidal habitats. A subgroup of organisms in this habitat bores and grinds exposed rock through the procedure of bioerosion.

Estuaries [edit]

Estuaries have shifting flows of sea water and fresh water.

Estuaries are also near shore and influenced by the tides. An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of water with one or more than rivers or streams flowing into it and with a gratuitous connection to the open up bounding main.^[10] Estuaries form a transition zone between freshwater river environments and saltwater maritime environments. They are field of study both to marine influences—such every bit tides, waves, and the influx of saline water—and to riverine influences—such every bit flows of fresh h2o and sediment. The shifting flows of both sea h2o and fresh water provide high levels of nutrients both in the water cavalcade and in sediment, making estuaries among the near productive natural habitats in the earth.^[11]

Reefs [edit]

Reefs contain some of the densest and well-nigh diverse habitats in the world. The best-known types of reefs are tropical coral reefs which exist in near tropical waters; nonetheless, reefs can also be in cold water. Reefs are congenital upwards by corals and other calcium-depositing animals, normally on top of a rocky outcrop on the ocean floor. Reefs can also grow on other surfaces, which has made it possible to create bogus reefs. Coral reefs also support a huge community of life, including the corals themselves, their symbiotic zooxanthellae, tropical fish and many other organisms.

Much attention in marine biology is focused on coral reefs and the El Niño weather phenomenon. In 1998, coral reefs experienced the well-nigh severe mass bleaching events on record, when vast expanses of reefs across the world died because sea surface temperatures rose well to a higher place normal.^{[12] [13]} Some reefs are recovering, but scientists say that between 50% and 70% of the world's coral reefs are now endangered and predict that global warming could exacerbate this trend.^{[14] [xv] [xvi] [17]}

Some representative ocean beast life (not drawn to scale) within their gauge depth-divers ecological habitats. Marine microorganisms be on the surfaces and within the tissues and organs of the various life inhabiting the bounding main, across all body of water habitats.^[eighteen]

Open bounding main [edit]

The open ocean is relatively unproductive because of a lack of nutrients, still because information technology is so vast, in total information technology produces the most primary productivity. The open ocean is separated into different zones, and the different zones each have unlike ecologies.^[xix] Zones which vary according to their depth include the epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic, abyssopelagic, and hadopelagic zones. Zones which vary past the amount of calorie-free they receive include the photic and aphotic zones. Much of the aphotic zone'southward free energy is supplied by the open ocean in the form of detritus.

Deep ocean and trenches [edit]

A deep-sea chimaera. Its snout is covered with tiny pores capable of detecting animals by perturbations in electric fields.

The deepest recorded oceanic trench measured to engagement is the Mariana Trench, near the Philippines, in the Pacific Sea at 10,924 m (35,840 ft). At such depths, water force per unit area is extreme and there is no sunlight, but some life still exists. A white flatfish, a shrimp and a jellyfish were seen past the American coiffure of the bathyscaphe Trieste when it dove to the lesser in 1960.^[xx] In general, the deep bounding main is considered to beginning at the aphotic zone, the point where sunlight loses its ability of transference through the water.^[21] Many life forms that live at these depths take the power to create their own light known as bio-luminescence. Marine life likewise flourishes around seamounts that rising from the depths, where fish and other sea life congregate to spawn and feed. Hydrothermal vents forth the mid-bounding main ridge spreading centers act equally oases, as do their opposites, cold seeps. Such places support unique biomes and many new microbes and other lifeforms take been discovered at these locations.^[22]

Marine life [edit]

Mature salmon with fungal disease

Albatross hovering over the ocean looking for prey

In biology many phyla, families and genera have some species that live in the sea and others that live on country. Marine biology classifies species based on the environs rather than on taxonomy. For this reason marine biology encompasses not simply organisms that live only in a marine environment, but also other organisms whose lives circumduct around the sea.

Microscopic life [edit]

As inhabitants of the largest environment on Earth, microbial marine systems bulldoze changes in every global system. Microbes are responsible for almost all the photosynthesis that occurs in the ocean, as well equally the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients and trace elements.^[23]

Microscopic life undersea is incredibly diverse and still poorly understood. For example, the role of viruses in marine ecosystems is barely being explored even in the beginning of the 21st century.^[24]

The part of phytoplankton is better understood due to their critical position every bit the nigh numerous primary producers on Earth. Phytoplankton are categorized into cyanobacteria (also called bluish-greenish algae/bacteria), diverse types of algae (red, greenish, brown, and yellow-green), diatoms, dinoflagellates, euglenoids, coccolithophorids, cryptomonads, chrysophytes, chlorophytes, prasinophytes, and silicoflagellates.

Zooplankton tend to be somewhat larger, and not all are microscopic. Many Protozoa are zooplankton, including dinoflagellates, zooflagellates, foraminiferans, and radiolarians. Some of these (such as dinoflagellates) are besides phytoplankton; the stardom betwixt plants and animals often breaks down in very minor organisms. Other zooplankton include cnidarians, ctenophores, chaetognaths, molluscs, arthropods, urochordates, and annelids such as polychaetes. Many larger animals begin their life as zooplankton before they get large enough to take their familiar forms. Two examples are fish larvae and sea stars (besides called starfish).

Plants and algae [edit]

Microscopic algae and plants provide of import habitats for life, sometimes acting equally hiding places for larval forms of larger fish and foraging places for invertebrates.

Algal life is widespread and very diverse under the ocean. Microscopic photosynthetic algae contribute a larger proportion of the globe's photosynthetic output than all the terrestrial forests combined. Well-nigh of the niche occupied past sub plants on state is actually occupied past macroscopic algae in the ocean, such as Sargassum and kelp, which are unremarkably known as seaweeds that create kelp forests.

Plants that survive in the sea are often institute in shallow waters, such as the seagrasses (examples of which are eelgrass, Zostera, and turtle grass, Thalassia). These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean surround. The intertidal zone is also a good identify to find plant life in the sea, where mangroves or cordgrass or embankment grass might grow.

Invertebrates [edit]

As on land, invertebrates brand upwardly a huge portion of all life in the sea. Invertebrate bounding main life includes Cnidaria such as jellyfish and sea anemones; Ctenophora; sea worms including the phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Annelida, Sipuncula, Echiura, Chaetognatha, and Phoronida; Mollusca including shellfish, squid, octopus; Arthropoda including Chelicerata and Crustacea; Porifera; Bryozoa; Echinodermata including starfish; and Urochordata including sea squirts or tunicates. Invertebrates have no backbone. There are over a million species.

Fungi [edit]

Over 10,000^[25] species of fungi are known from marine environments.^[26] These are parasitic on marine algae or animals, or are saprobes on algae, corals, protozoan cysts, body of water grasses, wood and other substrata, and tin likewise exist institute in sea foam.^[27] Spores of many species have special appendages which facilitate attachment to the substratum.^[28] A very diverse range of unusual secondary metabolites is produced by marine fungi.^[29]

Vertebrates [edit]

Fish [edit]

Main commodity: Fish

A reported 33,400 species of fish, including bony and cartilaginous fish, had been described by 2016,^[thirty] more than than all other vertebrates combined. Near sixty% of fish species live in saltwater.^[31]

Reptiles [edit]

Reptiles which inhabit or frequent the sea include sea turtles, sea snakes, terrapins, the marine iguana, and the saltwater crocodile. Well-nigh extant marine reptiles, except for some sea snakes, are oviparous and need to return to country to lay their eggs. Thus most species, excepting sea turtles, spend nearly of their lives on or near land rather than in the bounding main. Despite their marine adaptations, virtually bounding main snakes prefer shallow waters nearby land, effectually islands, especially waters that are somewhat sheltered, as well as near estuaries.^{[32] [33]} Some extinct marine reptiles, such as ichthyosaurs, evolved to be viviparous and had no requirement to return to state.

Birds [edit]

Birds adapted to living in the marine environs are often called seabirds. Examples include boundness, penguins, gannets, and auks. Although they spend about of their lives in the ocean, species such as gulls can oft be found thousands of miles inland.

Mammals [edit]

There are v main types of marine mammals, namely cetaceans (toothed whales and baleen whales); sirenians such as manatees; pinnipeds including seals and the walrus; sea otters; and the polar bear. All are air-breathing, and while some such as the sperm whale tin dive for prolonged periods, all must render to the surface to breathe.^{[34] [35]}

Subfields [edit]

The marine ecosystem is large, and thus there are many sub-fields of marine biology. Most involve studying specializations of particular fauna groups, such as phycology, invertebrate zoology and ichthyology. Other subfields study the physical furnishings of continual immersion in ocean water and the sea in general, adaptation to a salty environment, and the effects of irresolute diverse oceanic properties on marine life. A subfield of marine biological science studies the relationships between oceans and body of water life, and global warming and environmental issues (such as carbon dioxide displacement). Contempo marine biotechnology has focused largely on marine biomolecules, specially proteins, that may take uses in medicine or engineering. Marine environments are the home to many exotic biological materials that may inspire biomimetic materials.

[edit]

Marine biological science is a co-operative of biology. It is closely linked to oceanography, peculiarly biological oceanography, and may be regarded as a sub-field of marine science. It as well encompasses many ideas from ecology. Fisheries science and marine conservation can be considered partial offshoots of marine biology (as well as environmental studies). Marine Chemistry, Concrete oceanography and Atmospheric sciences are closely related to this field.

Distribution factors [edit]

An active research topic in marine biology is to discover and map the life cycles of various species and where they spend their time. Technologies that aid in this discovery include popular-up satellite archival tags, acoustic tags, and a variety of other data loggers. Marine biologists study how the ocean currents, tides and many other oceanic factors touch on ocean life forms, including their growth, distribution and well-being. This has only recently go technically viable with advances in GPS and newer underwater visual devices.^{[ citation needed ]}

About ocean life breeds in specific places, nests or not in others, spends time every bit juveniles in still others, and in maturity in yet others. Scientists know picayune almost where many species spend different parts of their life cycles peculiarly in the infant and juvenile years. For example, information technology is yet largely unknown where juvenile sea turtles and some yr-ane sharks travel. Contempo advances in underwater tracking devices are illuminating what we know about marine organisms that alive at great Ocean depths.^[36] The data that popular-up satellite archival tags give aids in certain time of the year fishing closures and development of a marine protected surface area. This data is of import to both scientists and fishermen because they are discovering that past restricting commercial fishing in 1 pocket-size area they tin can have a large impact in maintaining a salubrious fish population in a much larger area.

History [edit]

The written report of marine biological science dates back to Aristotle (384–322 BC), who made many observations of life in the bounding main around Lesbos, laying the foundation for many hereafter discoveries.^[38] In 1768, Samuel Gottlieb Gmelin (1744–1774) published the Historia Fucorum, the first work dedicated to marine algae and the commencement volume on marine biology to use the new binomial nomenclature of Linnaeus. It included elaborate illustrations of seaweed and marine algae on folded leaves.^{[39] [40]} The British naturalist Edward Forbes (1815–1854) is by and large regarded as the founder of the scientific discipline of marine biological science.^[41] The pace of oceanographic and marine biological science studies quickly accelerated during the form of the 19th century.

The observations made in the showtime studies of marine biology fueled the historic period of discovery and exploration that followed. During this fourth dimension, a vast amount of knowledge was gained about the life that exists in the oceans of the globe. Many voyages contributed significantly to this pool of knowledge. Among the most significant were the voyages of HMSBeagle where Charles Darwin came up with his theories of evolution and on the formation of coral reefs.^[42] Some other of import expedition was undertaken by HMS Challenger, where findings were made of unexpectedly high species variety amidst fauna stimulating much theorizing past population ecologists on how such varieties of life could exist maintained in what was thought to be such a hostile environs.^[43] This era was important for the history of marine biology but naturalists were however limited in their studies because they lacked technology that would let them to adequately examine species that lived in deep parts of the oceans.

The creation of marine laboratories was important because it allowed marine biologists to conduct enquiry and process their specimens from expeditions. The oldest marine laboratory in the earth, Station biologique de Roscoff, was established in Concarneau, France founded by the College of France in 1859.^[44] In the United States, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography dates dorsum to 1903, while the prominent Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute was founded in 1930.^[45] The development of technology such equally sound navigation ranging, scuba diving gear, submersibles and remotely operated vehicles allowed marine biologists to discover and explore life in deep oceans that was once idea to not exist.^[46]

See also [edit]

• Acoustic ecology
• Aquaculture
• Bathymetry
• Biological oceanography
• Furnishings of climatic change on oceans
• Freshwater biology
• Modular ocean model
• Oceanic basin
• Oceanic climate
• Phycology

Lists [edit]

• Glossary of environmental
• Index of biology manufactures
• Big marine ecosystem
• List of ecologists
• List of marine biologists
• List of marine ecoregions (WWF)
• Outline of biological science
• Outline of environmental

References [edit]

1. ^ Oceanographic and Bathymetric Features Marine Conservation Plant. Uploaded xviii September 2013.
2. ^ Foley, Jonathan A.; Taylor, Karl E.; Ghan, Steven J. (1991). "Planktonic dimethylsulfide and deject albedo: An estimate of the feedback response". Climatic Change. 18 (ane): 1. Bibcode:1991ClCh...eighteen....1F. doi:10.1007/BF00142502. S2CID 154990993.
3. ^ Sousa, Wayne P. (1986) [1985]. "7, Disturbance and Patch Dynamics on Rocky Intertidal Shores". In Pickett, Steward T. A.; White, P. S. (eds.). The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynamics . Academic Press. ISBN978-0-12-554521-one.
4. ^ Charette, Matthew; Smith, Walter H. F. (2010). "The volume of World's ocean". Oceanography. 23 (two): 112–114. doi:10.5670/oceanog.2010.51.
5. ^ Earth The Globe Factbook, CIA. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Lalli, Carol M., and Timothy R. Parsons. "Introduction." Biological Oceanography: An Introduction. Beginning Edition ed. Tarrytown, New York: Pergamon, 1993. vii-21. Print.
7. ^ Menden-Deuer, Susanne. "Course Info, OCG 561 Biological Oceanography". Archived from the original on 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2021-03-xix .
8. ^ Miller, Charles B.; Patricia A. Wheeler (2012). Biological Oceanography (2d ed.). Chinchester, West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons.
9. ^ Mills, Eric Fifty. (1995). "From marine environmental to biological oceanography". Helgoländer Meeresuntersuchungen. 49 (i–iv): 29–44. Bibcode:1995HM.....49...29M. doi:x.1007/BF02368334. S2CID 22149101.
10. ^ Pritchard, D. W. (1967). "What is an estuary: physical viewpoint". In Lauf, Chiliad. H. (ed.). Estuaries. A.A.A.S. Publ. Vol. 83. Washington, DC. pp. 3–5.
11. ^ McLusky, D. S.; Elliott, M. (2004). The Estuarine Ecosystem: Ecology, Threats and Direction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-852508-0.
12. ^ NOAA (1998) Record-breaking coral bleaching occurred in tropics this year. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Printing release (Oct 23, 1998).
13. ^ ICRS (1998) Argument on Global Coral Bleaching in 1997-1998. International Coral Reef Society, October 15, 1998.
14. ^ Bryant, D., Burke, Fifty., McManus, J., et al. (1998) "Reefs at risk: a map-based indicator of threats to the world's coral reefs". World Resources Institute, Washington, D.C.
15. ^ Goreau, T. J. (1992). "Bleaching and Reef Community Alter in Jamaica: 1951 - 1991". Am. Zool. 32 (6): 683–695. doi:10.1093/icb/32.vi.683.
16. ^ Sebens, K. P. (1994). "Biodiversity of Coral Reefs: What are We Losing and Why?". Am. Zool. 34: 115–133. doi:10.1093/icb/34.i.115.
17. ^ Wilkinson, C. R., and Buddemeier, R. W. (1994) "Global Climate Change and Coral Reefs:Implications for People and Reefs". Study of the UNEP-IOC-ASPEI-IUCN Global Job Squad on the Implications of Climatic change on Coral Reefs. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
18. ^ Apprill, A. (2017)"Marine animal microbiomes: toward understanding host–microbiome interactions in a changing ocean". Frontiers in Marine Science, four: 222. doi:ten.3389/fmars.2017.00222. Cloth was copied from this source, which is available under a Artistic Eatables Attribution four.0 International License.
19. ^ "The Open up Bounding main - MarineBio.org". marinebio.org . Retrieved 2016-09-26 .
20. ^ Seven Miles Downwardly: The Story of The Bathyscaph Trieste. Archived 2007-02-02 at the Wayback Machine, Rolex Deep Sea Special, January 2006.
21. ^ "Aphotic Zone | Encyclopedia.com". world wide web.encyclopedia.com . Retrieved 2018-12-06 .
22. ^ Priede, Imants G. (10 August 2017). Deep-Sea Fishes: Biology, Diversity, Environmental and Fisheries. pp. 12–thirteen. ISBN9781107083820.
23. ^ "Functions of global ocean microbiome key to agreement environmental changes". www.sciencedaily.com. University of Georgia. December 10, 2015. Retrieved December 11, 2015.
24. ^ Suttle, C.A. (2005). "Viruses in the Sea". Nature. 437 (nine): 356–361. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..356S. doi:10.1038/nature04160. PMID 16163346. S2CID 4370363.
25. ^ Amend, Anthony; Burgaud, Gaetan; Cunliffe, Michael; Edgcomb, Virginia P.; Ettinger, Cassandra L.; Gutiérrez, Thousand. H.; Heitman, Joseph; Hom, Erik F. Y.; Ianiri, Giuseppe; Jones, Adam C.; Kagami, Maiko (2019-03-05). "Fungi in the Marine Environment: Open Questions and Unsolved Problems". mBio. doi:ten.1128/mBio.01189-18.
26. ^ Hyde, Yard.D.; E.B.J. Jones; E. Leaño; Due south.B. Pointing; A.D. Poonyth; Fifty.L.P. Vrijmoed (1998). "Role of fungi in marine ecosystems". Biodiversity and Conservation. 7 (9): 1147–1161. doi:x.1023/A:1008823515157. S2CID 22264931.
27. ^ Kirk, P.G., Cannon, P.F., Minter, D.Westward. and Stalpers, J. "Dictionary of the Fungi". Edn 10. CABI, 2008
28. ^ Hyde, K.D.; E.B.J. Jones (1989). "Spore zipper in marine fungi". Botanica Marina. 32 (iii): 205–218. doi:x.1515/botm.1989.32.3.205. S2CID 84879817.
29. ^ San-Martín, A.; S. Orejanera; C. Gallardo; M. Silva; J. Becerra; R. Reinoso; 1000.C. Chamy; K. Vergara; J. Rovirosa (2008). "Steroids from the marine fungus Geotrichum sp". Journal of the Chilean Chemical Club. 53 (i): 1377–1378. doi:x.4067/S0717-97072008000100011.
30. ^ "Fishbase". Retrieved half dozen February 2017.
31. ^ Moyle, P. B.; Leidy, R. A. (1992). Fiedler, P. 50.; Jain, Southward. A. Jain (ed.). Loss of biodiversity in aquatic ecosystems: Prove from fish faunas. Conservation Biological science: the theory and practice of nature conservation, preservation, and management. Chapman and Hall. pp. 128–169. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (link)
32. ^ Stidworthy J. 1974. Snakes of the World. Grosset & Dunlap Inc. 160 pp. ISBN 0-448-11856-4.
33. ^ Body of water snakes ^{[ permanent expressionless link ]} at Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Accessed seven Baronial 2007.
34. ^ Kaschner, One thousand.; Tittensor, D. P.; Set, J.; Gerrodette, T.; Worm, B. (2011). "Current and Hereafter Patterns of Global Marine Mammal Biodiversity". PLOS Ane. 6 (5): e19653. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...619653K. doi:ten.1371/journal.pone.0019653. PMC3100303. PMID 21625431.
35. ^ Pompa, South.; Ehrlich, P. R.; Ceballos, M. (2011-08-16). "Global distribution and conservation of marine mammals". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (33): 13600–13605. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10813600P. doi:x.1073/pnas.1101525108. PMC3158205. PMID 21808012.
36. ^ "March 2014 Newsletter - What'south Going on at Desert Star".
37. ^ Leroi, Armand Marie (2014). The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science. Bloomsbury. pp. 72–74. ISBN978-1-4088-3622-4.
38. ^ "History of the Study of Marine Biological science - MarineBio.org". MarineBio Conservation Society. Web. Monday, March 31, 2014. <http://marinebio.org/oceans/history-of-marine-biology.asp Archived 2014-03-03 at Archive-Information technology>
39. ^ Gmelin S Yard (1768) Historia Fucorum Ex typographia Academiae scientiarum, Petrograd.
40. ^ Silva PC, Basson Pow and Moe RL (1996) Catalogue of the Benthic Marine Algae of the Indian Sea page ii, University of California Press. ISBN 9780520915817.
41. ^ "A Brief History of Marine Biological science and Oceanography". Retrieved 31 March 2014.
42. ^ Ward, Ritchie R. Into the bounding main world; the biology of the sea. 1st ed. New York: Knopf; [distributed past Random House], 1974: 161
43. ^ Gage, John D., and Paul A. Tyler. Deep-ocean biology: a natural history of organisms at the deep-sea flooring. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991: 1
44. ^ "A History Of The Written report Of Marine Biology ~ MarineBio Conservation Society". 2018-06-17. Retrieved 2022-02-17 .
45. ^ Maienschein, Jane. 100 years exploring life, 1888-1988: the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 1989: 189-192
46. ^ Anderson, Genny. "Beginnings: History of Marine Scientific discipline".

Further references [edit]

• Morrissey J and Sumich J (2011) Introduction to the Biology of Marine Life Jones & Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 9780763781606.
• Mladenov, Philip V., Marine Biology: A Very Brusk Introduction, 2nd edn (Oxford, 2020; online edn, Very Short Introductions online, Feb. 2020), http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780198841715.001.0001, accessed 21 Jun. 2020.

External links [edit]

• Smithsonian Body of water Portal
• Marine Conservation Guild
• Marine biology at Curlie
• Marine Ecology - an evolutionary perspective
• Gratuitous special event: Marine Biology in Fourth dimension and Space
• Creatures of the deep ocean – National Geographic documentary, 2010.
• Exploris
• Freshwater and Marine Image Bank - From the University of Washington Library
• Marine Training Portal - Portal grouping training initiatives in the field of Marine Biology

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_biology

Posted by: taylorafor1953.blogspot.com

Share this post